1 | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN"> |
---|
2 | |
---|
3 | <html> |
---|
4 | <head> |
---|
5 | <title>Tips on Writing Portable SQL for Multiple Databases for PHP</title> |
---|
6 | </head> |
---|
7 | |
---|
8 | <body bgcolor=white> |
---|
9 | <table width=100% border=0><tr><td><h2>Tips on Writing Portable SQL </h2></td><td> |
---|
10 | <div align=right><img src="cute_icons_for_site/adodb.gif"></div></td></tr></table> |
---|
11 | <p>Updated 6 Oct 2006. Added OffsetDate example. |
---|
12 | <p>Updated 18 Sep 2003. Added Portable Native SQL section. |
---|
13 | <p> |
---|
14 | |
---|
15 | If you are writing an application that is used in multiple environments and |
---|
16 | operating systems, you need to plan to support multiple databases. This article |
---|
17 | is based on my experiences with multiple database systems, stretching from 4th |
---|
18 | Dimension in my Mac days, to the databases I currently use, which are: Oracle, |
---|
19 | FoxPro, Access, MS SQL Server and MySQL. Although most of the advice here applies |
---|
20 | to using SQL with Perl, Python and other programming languages, I will focus on PHP and how |
---|
21 | the <a href="http://adodb.sourceforge.net/">ADOdb</a> database abstraction library |
---|
22 | offers some solutions.<p></p> |
---|
23 | <p>Most database vendors practice product lock-in. The best or fastest way to |
---|
24 | do things is often implemented using proprietary extensions to SQL. This makes |
---|
25 | it extremely hard to write portable SQL code that performs well under all conditions. |
---|
26 | When the first ANSI committee got together in 1984 to standardize SQL, the database |
---|
27 | vendors had such different implementations that they could only agree on the |
---|
28 | core functionality of SQL. Many important application specific requirements |
---|
29 | were not standardized, and after so many years since the ANSI effort began, |
---|
30 | it looks as if much useful database functionality will never be standardized. |
---|
31 | Even though ANSI-92 SQL has codified much more, we still have to implement portability |
---|
32 | at the application level.</p> |
---|
33 | <h3><b>Selects</b></h3> |
---|
34 | <p>The SELECT statement has been standardized to a great degree. Nearly every |
---|
35 | database supports the following:</p> |
---|
36 | <p>SELECT [cols] FROM [tables]<br> |
---|
37 | [WHERE conditions]<br> |
---|
38 | [GROUP BY cols]<br> |
---|
39 | [HAVING conditions] <br> |
---|
40 | [ORDER BY cols]</p> |
---|
41 | <p>But so many useful techniques can only be implemented by using proprietary |
---|
42 | extensions. For example, when writing SQL to retrieve the first 10 rows for |
---|
43 | paging, you could write...</p> |
---|
44 | <table width="80%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align="center"> |
---|
45 | <tr> |
---|
46 | <td><b>Database</b></td> |
---|
47 | <td><b>SQL Syntax</b></td> |
---|
48 | </tr> |
---|
49 | <tr> |
---|
50 | <td>DB2</td> |
---|
51 | <td>select * from table fetch first 10 rows only</td> |
---|
52 | </tr> |
---|
53 | <tr> |
---|
54 | <td>Informix</td> |
---|
55 | <td>select first 10 * from table</td> |
---|
56 | </tr> |
---|
57 | <tr> |
---|
58 | <td>Microsoft SQL Server and Access</td> |
---|
59 | <td>select top 10 * from table</td> |
---|
60 | </tr> |
---|
61 | <tr> |
---|
62 | <td>MySQL and PostgreSQL</td> |
---|
63 | <td>select * from table limit 10</td> |
---|
64 | </tr> |
---|
65 | <tr> |
---|
66 | <td>Oracle 8i</td> |
---|
67 | <td>select * from (select * from table) where rownum <= 10</td> |
---|
68 | </tr> |
---|
69 | </table> |
---|
70 | <p>This feature of getting a subset of data is so useful that in the PHP class |
---|
71 | library ADOdb, we have a SelectLimit( ) function that allows you to hide the |
---|
72 | implementation details within a function that will rewrite your SQL for you:</p> |
---|
73 | <pre>$connection->SelectLimit('select * from table', 10); |
---|
74 | </pre> |
---|
75 | <p><b>Selects: Fetch Modes</b></p> |
---|
76 | <p>PHP allows you to retrieve database records as arrays. You can choose to have |
---|
77 | the arrays indexed by field name or number. However different low-level PHP |
---|
78 | database drivers are inconsistent in their indexing efforts. ADOdb allows you |
---|
79 | to determine your prefered mode. You set this by setting the variable $ADODB_FETCH_MODE |
---|
80 | to either of the constants ADODB_FETCH_NUM (for numeric indexes) or ADODB_FETCH_ASSOC |
---|
81 | (using field names as an associative index).</p> |
---|
82 | <p>The default behaviour of ADOdb varies depending on the database you are using. |
---|
83 | For consistency, set the fetch mode to either ADODB_FETCH_NUM (for speed) or |
---|
84 | ADODB_FETCH_ASSOC (for convenience) at the beginning of your code. </p> |
---|
85 | <p><b>Selects: Counting Records</b></p> |
---|
86 | <p>Another problem with SELECTs is that some databases do not return the number |
---|
87 | of rows retrieved from a select statement. This is because the highest performance |
---|
88 | databases will return records to you even before the last record has been found. |
---|
89 | </p> |
---|
90 | <p>In ADOdb, RecordCount( ) returns the number of rows returned, or will emulate |
---|
91 | it by buffering the rows and returning the count after all rows have been returned. |
---|
92 | This can be disabled for performance reasons when retrieving large recordsets |
---|
93 | by setting the global variable $ADODB_COUNTRECS = false. This variable is checked |
---|
94 | every time a query is executed, so you can selectively choose which recordsets |
---|
95 | to count.</p> |
---|
96 | <p>If you prefer to set $ADODB_COUNTRECS = false, ADOdb still has the PO_RecordCount( |
---|
97 | ) function. This will return the number of rows, or if it is not found, it will |
---|
98 | return an estimate using SELECT COUNT(*):</p> |
---|
99 | <pre>$rs = $db->Execute("select * from table where state=$state"); |
---|
100 | $numrows = $rs->PO_RecordCount('table', "state=$state");</pre> |
---|
101 | <p><b>Selects: Locking</b> </p> |
---|
102 | <p>SELECT statements are commonly used to implement row-level locking of tables. |
---|
103 | Other databases such as Oracle, Interbase, PostgreSQL and MySQL with InnoDB |
---|
104 | do not require row-level locking because they use versioning to display data |
---|
105 | consistent with a specific point in time.</p> |
---|
106 | <p>Currently, I recommend encapsulating the row-level locking in a separate function, |
---|
107 | such as RowLock($table, $where):</p> |
---|
108 | <pre>$connection->BeginTrans( ); |
---|
109 | $connection->RowLock($table, $where); </pre> |
---|
110 | <pre><font color=green># some operation</font></pre> |
---|
111 | <pre>if ($ok) $connection->CommitTrans( ); |
---|
112 | else $connection->RollbackTrans( ); |
---|
113 | </pre> |
---|
114 | <p><b>Selects: Outer Joins</b></p> |
---|
115 | <p>Not all databases support outer joins. Furthermore the syntax for outer joins |
---|
116 | differs dramatically between database vendors. One portable (and possibly slower) |
---|
117 | method of implementing outer joins is using UNION.</p> |
---|
118 | <p>For example, an ANSI-92 left outer join between two tables t1 and t2 could |
---|
119 | look like:</p> |
---|
120 | <pre>SELECT t1.col1, t1.col2, t2.cola <br> FROM t1 <i>LEFT JOIN</i> t2 ON t1.col = t2.col</pre> |
---|
121 | <p>This can be emulated using:</p> |
---|
122 | <pre>SELECT t1.col1, t1.col2, t2.cola FROM t1, t2 <br> WHERE t1.col = t2.col |
---|
123 | UNION ALL |
---|
124 | SELECT col1, col2, null FROM t1 <br> WHERE t1.col not in (select distinct col from t2) |
---|
125 | </pre> |
---|
126 | <p>Since ADOdb 2.13, we provide some hints in the connection object as to legal |
---|
127 | join variations. This is still incomplete and sometimes depends on the database |
---|
128 | version you are using, but is useful as a general guideline:</p> |
---|
129 | <p><font face="Courier New, Courier, mono">$conn->leftOuter</font>: holds the |
---|
130 | operator used for left outer joins (eg. '*='), or false if not known or not |
---|
131 | available.<br> |
---|
132 | <font face="Courier New, Courier, mono">$conn->rightOuter</font>: holds the |
---|
133 | operator used for right outer joins (eg '=*'), or false if not known or not |
---|
134 | available.<br> |
---|
135 | <font face="Courier New, Courier, mono">$conn->ansiOuter</font>: boolean |
---|
136 | that if true means that ANSI-92 style outer joins are supported, or false if |
---|
137 | not known.</p> |
---|
138 | <h3><b>Inserts</b> </h3> |
---|
139 | <p>When you create records, you need to generate unique id's for each record. |
---|
140 | There are two common techniques: (1) auto-incrementing columns and (2) sequences. |
---|
141 | </p> |
---|
142 | <p>Auto-incrementing columns are supported by MySQL, Sybase and Microsoft Access |
---|
143 | and SQL Server. However most other databases do not support this feature. So |
---|
144 | for portability, you have little choice but to use sequences. Sequences are |
---|
145 | special functions that return a unique incrementing number every time you call |
---|
146 | it, suitable to be used as database keys. In ADOdb, we use the GenID( ) function. |
---|
147 | It has takes a parameter, the sequence name. Different tables can have different |
---|
148 | sequences. </p> |
---|
149 | <pre>$id = $connection->GenID('sequence_name');<br>$connection->Execute("insert into table (id, firstname, lastname) <br> values ($id, $firstname, $lastname)");</pre> |
---|
150 | <p>For databases that do not support sequences natively, ADOdb emulates sequences |
---|
151 | by creating a table for every sequence.</p> |
---|
152 | <h3><b>Binding</b></h3> |
---|
153 | <p>Binding variables in an SQL statement is another tricky feature. Binding is |
---|
154 | useful because it allows pre-compilation of SQL. When inserting multiple records |
---|
155 | into a database in a loop, binding can offer a 50% (or greater) speedup. However |
---|
156 | many databases such as Access and MySQL do not support binding natively and |
---|
157 | there is some overhead in emulating binding. Furthermore, different databases |
---|
158 | (specificly Oracle!) implement binding differently. My recommendation is to |
---|
159 | use binding if your database queries are too slow, but make sure you are using |
---|
160 | a database that supports it like Oracle. </p> |
---|
161 | <p>ADOdb supports portable Prepare/Execute with:</p> |
---|
162 | <pre>$stmt = $db->Prepare('select * from customers where custid=? and state=?'); |
---|
163 | $rs = $db->Execute($stmt, array($id,'New York'));</pre> |
---|
164 | <p>Oracle uses named bind placeholders, not "?", so to support portable binding, we have Param() that generates |
---|
165 | the correct placeholder (available since ADOdb 3.92): |
---|
166 | <pre><font color="#000000">$sql = <font color="#993300">'insert into table (col1,col2) values ('</font>.$DB->Param('a').<font color="#993300">','</font>.$DB->Param('b').<font color="#993300">')'</font>; |
---|
167 | <font color="#006600"># generates 'insert into table (col1,col2) values (?,?)' |
---|
168 | # or 'insert into table (col1,col2) values (:a,:b)</font>' |
---|
169 | $stmt = $DB->Prepare($sql); |
---|
170 | $stmt = $DB->Execute($stmt,array('one','two')); |
---|
171 | </font></pre> |
---|
172 | <a name="native"></a> |
---|
173 | <h2>Portable Native SQL</h2> |
---|
174 | <p>ADOdb provides the following functions for portably generating SQL functions |
---|
175 | as strings to be merged into your SQL statements (some are only available since |
---|
176 | ADOdb 3.92): </p> |
---|
177 | <table width="75%" border="1" align=center> |
---|
178 | <tr> |
---|
179 | <td width=30%><b>Function</b></td> |
---|
180 | <td><b>Description</b></td> |
---|
181 | </tr> |
---|
182 | <tr> |
---|
183 | <td>DBDate($date)</td> |
---|
184 | <td>Pass in a UNIX timestamp or ISO date and it will convert it to a date |
---|
185 | string formatted for INSERT/UPDATE</td> |
---|
186 | </tr> |
---|
187 | <tr> |
---|
188 | <td>DBTimeStamp($date)</td> |
---|
189 | <td>Pass in a UNIX timestamp or ISO date and it will convert it to a timestamp |
---|
190 | string formatted for INSERT/UPDATE</td> |
---|
191 | </tr> |
---|
192 | <tr> |
---|
193 | <td>SQLDate($date, $fmt)</td> |
---|
194 | <td>Portably generate a date formatted using $fmt mask, for use in SELECT |
---|
195 | statements.</td> |
---|
196 | </tr> |
---|
197 | <tr> |
---|
198 | <td>OffsetDate($date, $ndays)</td> |
---|
199 | <td>Portably generate a $date offset by $ndays.</td> |
---|
200 | </tr> |
---|
201 | <tr> |
---|
202 | <td>Concat($s1, $s2, ...)</td> |
---|
203 | <td>Portably concatenate strings. Alternatively, for mssql use mssqlpo driver, |
---|
204 | which allows || operator.</td> |
---|
205 | </tr> |
---|
206 | <tr> |
---|
207 | <td>IfNull($fld, $replaceNull)</td> |
---|
208 | <td>Returns a string that is the equivalent of MySQL IFNULL or Oracle NVL.</td> |
---|
209 | </tr> |
---|
210 | <tr> |
---|
211 | <td>Param($name)</td> |
---|
212 | <td>Generates bind placeholders, using ? or named conventions as appropriate.</td> |
---|
213 | </tr> |
---|
214 | <tr><td>$db->sysDate</td><td>Property that holds the SQL function that returns today's date</td> |
---|
215 | </tr> |
---|
216 | <tr><td>$db->sysTimeStamp</td><td>Property that holds the SQL function that returns the current |
---|
217 | timestamp (date+time). |
---|
218 | </td> |
---|
219 | </tr> |
---|
220 | <tr> |
---|
221 | <td>$db->concat_operator</td><td>Property that holds the concatenation operator |
---|
222 | </td> |
---|
223 | </tr> |
---|
224 | <tr><td>$db->length</td><td>Property that holds the name of the SQL strlen function. |
---|
225 | </td></tr> |
---|
226 | |
---|
227 | <tr><td>$db->upperCase</td><td>Property that holds the name of the SQL strtoupper function. |
---|
228 | </td></tr> |
---|
229 | <tr><td>$db->random</td><td>Property that holds the SQL to generate a random number between 0.00 and 1.00. |
---|
230 | </td> |
---|
231 | </tr> |
---|
232 | <tr><td>$db->substr</td><td>Property that holds the name of the SQL substring function. |
---|
233 | </td></tr> |
---|
234 | </table> |
---|
235 | <p> </p> |
---|
236 | <h2>DDL and Tuning</h2> |
---|
237 | There are database design tools such as ERWin or Dezign that allow you to generate data definition language commands such as ALTER TABLE or CREATE INDEX from Entity-Relationship diagrams. |
---|
238 | <p> |
---|
239 | However if you prefer to use a PHP-based table creation scheme, adodb provides you with this feature. Here is the code to generate the SQL to create a table with: |
---|
240 | <ol> |
---|
241 | <li> Auto-increment primary key 'ID', </li> |
---|
242 | <li>The person's 'NAME' VARCHAR(32) NOT NULL and defaults to '', </li> |
---|
243 | <li>The date and time of record creation 'CREATED', </li> |
---|
244 | <li> The person's 'AGE', defaulting to 0, type NUMERIC(16). </li> |
---|
245 | </ol> |
---|
246 | <p> |
---|
247 | Also create a compound index consisting of 'NAME' and 'AGE': |
---|
248 | <pre> |
---|
249 | $datadict = <strong>NewDataDictionary</strong>($connection); |
---|
250 | $flds = " |
---|
251 | <font color="#660000"> ID I AUTOINCREMENT PRIMARY, |
---|
252 | NAME C(32) DEFAULT '' NOTNULL, |
---|
253 | CREATED T DEFTIMESTAMP, |
---|
254 | AGE N(16) DEFAULT 0</font> |
---|
255 | "; |
---|
256 | $sql1 = $datadict-><strong>CreateTableSQL</strong>('tabname', $flds); |
---|
257 | $sql2 = $datadict-><strong>CreateIndexSQL</strong>('idx_name_age', 'tabname', 'NAME,AGE'); |
---|
258 | </pre> |
---|
259 | |
---|
260 | <h3>Data Types</h3> |
---|
261 | <p>Stick to a few data types that are available in most databases. Char, varchar |
---|
262 | and numeric/number are supported by most databases. Most other data types (including |
---|
263 | integer, boolean and float) cannot be relied on being available. I recommend |
---|
264 | using char(1) or number(1) to hold booleans. </p> |
---|
265 | <p>Different databases have different ways of representing dates and timestamps/datetime. |
---|
266 | ADOdb attempts to display all dates in ISO (YYYY-MM-DD) format. ADOdb also provides |
---|
267 | DBDate( ) and DBTimeStamp( ) to convert dates to formats that are acceptable |
---|
268 | to that database. Both functions accept Unix integer timestamps and date strings |
---|
269 | in ISO format.</p> |
---|
270 | <pre>$date1 = $connection->DBDate(time( ));<br>$date2 = $connection->DBTimeStamp('2002-02-23 13:03:33');</pre> |
---|
271 | <p>We also provide functions to convert database dates to Unix timestamps:</p> |
---|
272 | <pre>$unixts = $recordset->UnixDate('#2002-02-30#'); <font color="green"># MS Access date => unix timestamp</font></pre> |
---|
273 | <p>For date calculations, we have OffsetDate which allows you to calculate dates such as <i>yesterday</i> and <i>next week</i> in a RDBMS independant fashion. For example, if we want to set a field to 6 hour from now, use: |
---|
274 | <pre> |
---|
275 | $sql = 'update table set dtimefld='.$db->OffsetDate($db->sysTimeStamp, 6/24).' where ...'; |
---|
276 | </pre> |
---|
277 | <p>The maximum length of a char/varchar field is also database specific. You can |
---|
278 | only assume that field lengths of up to 250 characters are supported. This is |
---|
279 | normally impractical for web based forum or content management systems. You |
---|
280 | will need to be familiar with how databases handle large objects (LOBs). ADOdb |
---|
281 | implements two functions, UpdateBlob( ) and UpdateClob( ) that allow you to |
---|
282 | update fields holding Binary Large Objects (eg. pictures) and Character Large |
---|
283 | Objects (eg. HTML articles):</p> |
---|
284 | <pre><font color=green># for oracle </font> |
---|
285 | $conn->Execute('INSERT INTO blobtable (id, blobcol) VALUES (1,empty_blob())'); |
---|
286 | $conn->UpdateBlob('blobtable','blobcol',$blobvalue,'id=1'); |
---|
287 | |
---|
288 | <font color=green># non-oracle databases</font> |
---|
289 | $conn->Execute('INSERT INTO blobtable (id, blobcol) VALUES (1, null)'); |
---|
290 | $conn->UpdateBlob('blobtable','blobcol',$blobvalue,'id=1'); |
---|
291 | </pre> |
---|
292 | <p>Null handling is another area where differences can occur. This is a mine-field, |
---|
293 | because 3-value logic is tricky. |
---|
294 | <p>In general, I avoid using nulls except for dates and default all my numeric |
---|
295 | and character fields to 0 or the empty string. This maintains consistency with |
---|
296 | PHP, where empty strings and zero are treated as equivalent, and avoids SQL |
---|
297 | ambiguities when you use the ANY and EXISTS operators. However if your database |
---|
298 | has significant amounts of missing or unknown data, using nulls might be a good |
---|
299 | idea. |
---|
300 | <p> |
---|
301 | ADOdb also supports a portable <a href=http://phplens.com/adodb/reference.functions.concat.html#ifnull>IfNull</a> function, so you can define what to display |
---|
302 | if the field contains a null. |
---|
303 | <h3><b>Stored Procedures</b></h3> |
---|
304 | <p>Stored procedures are another problem area. Some databases allow recordsets |
---|
305 | to be returned in a stored procedure (Microsoft SQL Server and Sybase), and |
---|
306 | others only allow output parameters to be returned. Stored procedures sometimes |
---|
307 | need to be wrapped in special syntax. For example, Oracle requires such code |
---|
308 | to be wrapped in an anonymous block with BEGIN and END. Also internal sql operators |
---|
309 | and functions such as +, ||, TRIM( ), SUBSTR( ) or INSTR( ) vary between vendors. |
---|
310 | </p> |
---|
311 | <p>An example of how to call a stored procedure with 2 parameters and 1 return |
---|
312 | value follows:</p> |
---|
313 | <pre> switch ($db->databaseType) { |
---|
314 | case '<font color="#993300">mssql</font>': |
---|
315 | $sql = <font color="#000000"><font color="#993333">'<font color="#993300">SP_RUNSOMETHING</font>'</font></font>; break; |
---|
316 | case '<font color="#993300">oci8</font>': |
---|
317 | $sql = |
---|
318 | <font color="#993300"> </font><font color="#000000"><font color="#993300">"declare RETVAL integer;begin :RETVAL := </font><font color="#000000"><font color="#993333"><font color="#993300">SP_RUNSOMETHING</font></font></font><font color="#993300">(:myid,:group);end;"; |
---|
319 | </font> break;</font> |
---|
320 | default: |
---|
321 | die('<font color="#993300">Unsupported feature</font>'); |
---|
322 | } |
---|
323 | <font color="#000000"><font color="green"> # @RETVAL = SP_RUNSOMETHING @myid,@group</font> |
---|
324 | $stmt = $db->PrepareSP($sql); <br> $db->Parameter($stmt,$id,'<font color="#993300">myid</font>'); |
---|
325 | $db->Parameter($stmt,$group,'<font color="#993300">group</font>'); |
---|
326 | <font color="green"># true indicates output parameter<br> </font>$db->Parameter($stmt,$ret,'<font color="#993300">RETVAL</font>',true); |
---|
327 | $db->Execute($stmt); </font></pre> |
---|
328 | <p>As you can see, the ADOdb API is the same for both databases. But the stored |
---|
329 | procedure SQL syntax is quite different between databases and is not portable, |
---|
330 | so be forewarned! However sometimes you have little choice as some systems only |
---|
331 | allow data to be accessed via stored procedures. This is when the ultimate portability |
---|
332 | solution might be the only solution: <i>treating portable SQL as a localization |
---|
333 | exercise...</i></p> |
---|
334 | <h3><b>SQL as a Localization Exercise</b></h3> |
---|
335 | <p> In general to provide real portability, you will have to treat SQL coding |
---|
336 | as a localization exercise. In PHP, it has become common to define separate |
---|
337 | language files for English, Russian, Korean, etc. Similarly, I would suggest |
---|
338 | you have separate Sybase, Intebase, MySQL, etc files, and conditionally include |
---|
339 | the SQL based on the database. For example, each MySQL SQL statement would be |
---|
340 | stored in a separate variable, in a file called 'mysql-lang.inc.php'.</p> |
---|
341 | <pre>$sqlGetPassword = '<font color="#993300">select password from users where userid=%s</font>'; |
---|
342 | $sqlSearchKeyword = "<font color="#993300">SELECT * FROM articles WHERE match (title,body) against (%s</font>)";</pre> |
---|
343 | <p>In our main PHP file:</p> |
---|
344 | <pre><font color=green># define which database to load...</font> |
---|
345 | <b>$database = '<font color="#993300">mysql</font>'; |
---|
346 | include_once("<font color="#993300">$database-lang.inc.php</font>");</b> |
---|
347 | |
---|
348 | $db = &NewADOConnection($database); |
---|
349 | $db->PConnect(...) or die('<font color="#993300">Failed to connect to database</font>'); |
---|
350 | |
---|
351 | <font color=green># search for a keyword $word</font> |
---|
352 | $rs = $db->Execute(sprintf($sqlSearchKeyWord,$db->qstr($word)));</pre> |
---|
353 | <p>Note that we quote the $word variable using the qstr( ) function. This is because |
---|
354 | each database quotes strings using different conventions.</p> |
---|
355 | <p> |
---|
356 | <h3>Final Thoughts</h3> |
---|
357 | <p>The best way to ensure that you have portable SQL is to have your data tables designed using |
---|
358 | sound principles. Learn the theory of normalization and entity-relationship diagrams and model |
---|
359 | your data carefully. Understand how joins and indexes work and how they are used to tune performance. |
---|
360 | <p> Visit the following page for more references on database theory and vendors: |
---|
361 | <a href="http://php.weblogs.com/sql_tutorial">http://php.weblogs.com/sql_tutorial</a>. |
---|
362 | Also read this article on <a href=http://phplens.com/lens/php-book/optimizing-debugging-php.php>Optimizing PHP</a>. |
---|
363 | <p> |
---|
364 | <font size=1>(c) 2002-2003 John Lim.</font> |
---|
365 | |
---|
366 | </body> |
---|
367 | </html> |
---|